This article from Smart Growth America advocates for multimodal transportation in rural communities, challenging the misconception that such initiatives are only necessary or feasible in urban areas. It provides a comprehensive look at the diverse needs and challenges faced by rural communities across the United States, discussing the importance of understanding rural differences to implement effective transportation and development strategies. This source is relevant to understanding the broader context of walkability in different settings, particularly how rural areas can be overlooked in discussions that focus predominantly on urban environments. The insights into how walkability and mobility are crucial even in less densely populated areas provide a crucial perspective for examining socio-cultural shifts in walkability across different community types.

This study lends itself to answering our research question about how historical movements have impacted the way the United States (and the world at large) approaches walkable cities. The historical event this article analyzes is the rise of green capitalism–or the idea that nature is a form of capital– a mentality that gained popularity at the same time as the climate crisis. In short, this article describes how walkable cities and green spaces were created through the lobbying of socially and racially marginalized groups, yet these very same groups are excluded from the urban cityscapes they fought for. As nature becomes seen as increasingly desirable to the capitalist eye, proximity to green spaces gets refurbished into posh, ‘walkable’ neighborhoods that are safe and healthy. In doing so, prices skyrocket, and the groups originally inhabiting those spaces are edged out. 

Models for many to-be green cities are created with the white and the rich in mind. Instead of being created with the intention of environmental justice and neighborhood reclamation, green, walkable spaces are being commodified into capital and as leverage to attract the wealthy rather than those displaced. With this, we can consider directionality (Are walkable cities walkable because their populace is healthy and wealthy, or are individuals healthy and wealthy because they live in walkable cities? Are these two even separable?) 

This chapter gave a lot of clarity on the background of the creation of liveable cities (which include walkability in their designs). The rise of walkable and liveable cities were a result of post-WW2 desire to make cities liveable, therefore bolstering the States’ capitalistic economy and its communities. As the desire to create walkable cities expanded, other economic and transportation initiatives took hold (such as Clinton-Gore) with the desire to reverse urban sprawl and promote economic stability. 

The dialogue that this reading brings is intensely interesting and creates great dialogue. One quote I found particularly powerful is “Paradoxically, when medicalized philosophies of life circulate in the liveable city, the very communities whose health disparities were used to justify development find themselves excluded or displaced” (83). Thus, as our team seeks to analyze the patterns associated with walkability and the demographics of the people who live in walkable cities, we are armed with political and economic contexts that can frame our analyses of our data.

This study examines social and economic disparities in neighborhood walkability across 500 major urban centers in the United States. Utilizing the 2019 Walk Score Data, the researchers assessed walkability at both city and census tract levels in 2020. Findings indicate that high-income and majority White neighborhoods generally had lower walkability, with disparities further pronounced among different racial and ethnic groups.  Notably, walkability decreased with increasing median income in White, LatinX, and Asian American neighborhoods, but this trend was reversed in majority Black neighborhoods, where lower-income tracts exhibited the lowest walkability. The study highlights the importance of structural interventions to improve equity in urban environments, particularly in lower-income majority Black neighborhoods. 

In this paper, Cortright explores the relationship between neighborhood walkability and home values in U.S. cities. Using the Walk Score algorithm to measure walkability based on the proximity of various consumer destinations, the study analyzes data from over 90,000 recent home sales in 15 different markets nationwide. Through hedonic regression analysis, the research finds a positive correlation between walkability and housing prices in 13 out of the 15 markets studied. The results indicate that homes in more walkable neighborhoods command a price premium, ranging from 4k to 34k over homes in less walkable areas. This study highlights the significance of walkability in influencing housing market dynamics and suggests that walkability contributes to greater accessibility and convenience, with implications for urban vitality and public policy. 

This article discusses the relationship between city walkability and socio-economic factors such as income levels and educational attainment. The discussion highlights how walkable urban environments correlate with higher income and educational levels, suggesting that these areas attract residents who value and can afford the benefits of a pedestrian-friendly lifestyle. This source provides insight for examining how perceptions of walkability are influenced by socio-economic status and education. It adds a layer of understanding to how urban planning and socio-economic factors intersect and how these intersections may drive broader cultural shifts in how different neighborhoods are perceived and valued.

This article discusses how walking and physical activity specifically in cities across Minnesota, directly relate to health conditions. Creating a greater focus on walking, for transport rather than exercise proves to have many positive benefits for a community. “Pedestrian-oriented” infrastructure is encouraged and is beginning to make its way into public policy. There are individual motivations for walking, but if future cities can incorporate greater walkability into their design plans then there proves to be a correlation with better public health overall. 

We can use the data provided in this article for our group’s assignment as it relates to ease of travel and enjoyment/utilization of walkable environments. It is also important to note that people mostly self-report how much they walk, which may reflect some biases in the dataset. Another important piece of the data within this article is that individuals in the highest walkability quartile were 2.4x more likely to reach a goal of ~30 minutes a day of physical activity. Based on our chosen research question, these implications tell us that physical health is directly related to the walkability of one’s neighborhood they reside in. 

This chapter gave a lot of clarity on the background of the creation of liveable cities (which include walkability in their designs). The rise of walkable and liveable cities was a result of post-WW2 desire to make cities liveable, therefore bolstering the States’ capitalistic economy and its communities. As the desire to create walkable cities expanded, other economic and transportation initiatives took hold (such as Clinton-Gore) with the desire to reverse urban sprawl and promote economic stability. 

The dialogue that this reading brings is intensely interesting and creates great dialogue. One quote I found particularly powerful is “Paradoxically, when medicalized philosophies of life circulate in the liveable city, the very communities whose health disparities were used to justify development find themselves excluded or displaced” (83). Thus, as our team seeks to analyze the patterns associated with walkability and the demographics of the people who live in walkable cities, we are armed with political and economic contexts that can frame our analyses of our data. 

Knudsen argues that the role of walkability facilitates the creation of a unique space for collective action and the development of social movements by analyzing case studies. He uses evidence primarily from the ZIP Code Business Patterns and the U.S. Census to have about 30,000 case studies. This article is important as it fills the gap in current scholarship on examining how local urban contexts, in this case, walkability, influences social movement organizations (SMOs). Additionally, this resource specifically addresses our thesis by providing directional evidence on how walkability could affect the voices of people in social movements and vice versa.

Another aspect of walkability and public health outcomes is exposure to pollution. Many negative health impacts come from being exposed to outdoor air pollution. An issue with this is that most cities with high walkability scores are also high contributors to vehicle exhaust and traffic density. Some of these negative health concerns include asthma, reduced lung functioning, cardiac arrhythmia, and preterm babies. Furthermore, inactivity may lead to heart disease, diabetes, obesity, and several types of cancers. 

This data is essential for measuring positive and negative health outcomes based on the walkability index score for individual communities. Because the design of a neighborhood is proven to influence walking and exercise, but also pollution there is a unique opportunity given for us to analyze health. If we wish to improve the future, we should use this data as a tool to create cleaner, healthier, urban environments. 

This article investigates the relationship between walkability indices, multimodal travel behavior, and social mobility in urban contexts. Drawing from recent research in city planning, Riggs and Sethi explore the quantification of the built environment, particularly focusing on walkability and multimodalism, and their implications for property values, neighborhood stability, and spatial distribution of resources. The study offers a comprehensive research approach, considering both built environment factors and socio-demographic attributes in analyzing non-vehicular transportation modes. The study finds distance significantly affects transit behavior in walkable neighborhoods while walking or cycling correlates more strongly with built environment features, age, household income, and size. This demonstrates the importance of policy interventions addressing spatial equity and promoting income mobility to foster a more inclusive and accessible urban environment. 

This study is a systematic review of literature previously written about walkability. It discovers that walkability is usually talked about in two contexts: one as a form of exercise and health promotion, and the other as a form of urban mobility that has been impacted by urbanization and motorization. The latter is what our group is more interested in, as it reflects the cultural and historical changes that have impacted the way we think about walking. As framed in this paper, walking used to be seen as the default– all cities were walkable because that was our main form of transport, especially within the U.S. However, as the motor industry exploded, walkable cities are now made intentionally and have to be carefully planned around the automobile. This paper touts walkability and walkable cities as a form of longevity because they are more conscious of health, pollution, noise, and microclimate. Walkability also promotes social life and mental health. The paper then discusses how different papers and different countries/cities have approached walkability, which I think my group will find interesting– how has each city evolved? How are they moving forward?

Shay argues the implications of the advance in connected and automated vehicle technology on walkability, referring to the accessibility of walking within a community. She uses research papers and technical reports in literature from engineering, information technology, built environment, land use, and public health. This article is important as it highlights how CAVs need to enhance rather than undermine walkability by considering pedestrian transportation planning and policy-making. Furthermore, this resource specifically addresses in our thesis how the general technology movement we are going through is impacting walkability through this specific example.

Spoer argues how racial residential segregation impacts walkability and its accessibility and suggests that higher levels of segregation may be associated with lower levels of walkability. He uses data from 745 US cities to analyze the association as well as other factors like neighborhood composition, urban planning policies, and historical patterns. This article is important as it demonstrates potential reasons for the disparities in physical and health outcomes among different racial and ethnic groups, that could be changed with intervention. Moreover, this resource specifically addresses our thesis on how political or government movements and decisions could have an effect on walkability especially towards minority populations compared to non-minority populations, emphasizing their voices.

This article outlines ten significant economic benefits of walkable urban areas, emphasizing how these environments can boost prosperity, support local businesses, and increase land and property values. The discussion includes various ways in which pedestrian-friendly spaces can enhance a city’s identity and attractiveness, promote tourism, and stimulate local economies by reducing transportation costs and fostering business activities in more densely populated areas. This source is crucial for my thesis as it directly links the economic aspects of walkability with urban planning and socio-economic dynamics. The detailed economic analysis helps frame walkability not just as a lifestyle or environmental choice, but as a significant contributor to urban economic development, aligning with broader socio-cultural shifts towards sustainable urban living.

In this study, researchers closely analyzed the associations among three factors: perceived neighborhood walkability rated as low, medium, or high, physical activity (PA) categorized as insufficient (0-149 min/wk) or sufficient (150+ min/wk), and obesity. By employing a sample of 31,568 adults from the cross-sectional data of the 2020 National Health Interview Survey, the study builds off of previously established knowledge regarding these measures which is that higher levels of walkability are associated with improved health conditions (e.g. reduced obesity rates, BMI and risk of diabetes, better mental health and PA) while acknowledging that previous studies of US adults had limitations regarding sufficient representation of colored communities. Based on this information, this study employs a nationally representative sample of US adults and finds an association between 1) high walkability and decreased BMI and odds of obesity, 2) walkability and BM being partially intervened by individual PA, and 3) walkability and BMI being altered by race and ethnicity; thus, researchers advocate for further investigation towards the multi-factor relationship between walkability and health, especially for the community of colors where obesity is at a higher risk. 

This article looks at the relationship between parks and mental health. The amount of green space in neighborhood developments is positively associated with greater mental well-being. It is especially important that neighborhoods are designed with easy access to public green spaces within walking distance. With the increasing interest in protecting mental well-being, research has revealed that contact with nature helps to reduce stress. The greater the presence of parks within a neighborhood, regardless of whether they’re often in use or not, the greater the perceived benefits for its residents. 

The findings of this study are important to our group’s analysis because they reveal that access to greater numbers of recreational or nature spaces within a neighborhood is associated with positive mental health. Some biases within the data that are important to note are the fact that income and zip codes affect results. The sample is not exactly representative of the greater population as it isn’t representative of all demographics. However, it is still noteworthy data as it demonstrates mental well-being is associated with walkable parks within a neighborhood. 

In this study, researchers conduct a case study of Mueller, Austin, Texas, a LEED-ND-certified mixed-used community where walking and other outdoor activities are supported by the town design. This study collected data from new residents of Mueller, 13 of whom were from a focus group and 148 of whom answered through an online survey. The focus group was first recruited to answer questions about their habits regarding physical and social activities, and their responses were used to tailor the online survey for future participants. Based on previous findings, the study 1) predicts that after moving into Mueller, a walkable and activity-friendly environment, residents should experience a significant increase in “physical activities” and “social interactions and cohesions”, and 2) wishes to explore how such increases have shifted in types, frequencies, and locations for new residents. The study did have multiple limitations, including the online survey not reaching enough potential participants, pre-moving data being collected through memory and potentially causing inaccuracy, and a small sample size; however, the study still provided evidence supporting their hypothesis, which is that 1) walkability is associated with increased physical and social activity, and 2) the two also help facilitate improved personal attitudes and social support. Research also shows that moving to Mueller has caused participants to drive significantly, suggesting the environmental benefits of walkable communities. 

This study wishes to explore factors associated with greenspace visitation frequency and how walkability, travel methods, or proximity to greenspace play a role in such frequency. To find a relationship between the above factors in Tucson, Arizona, researchers used an identical questionnaire for 309 participants from their homes in the area (i.e. residents) and 103 subjects sampled in a park (i.e. greenspace users). Due to the geographic feature of Tucson, walkability was higher for the south side of the park, which had higher population density and a more connected street network, whereas the north side of the park had lower walkability with hilly trails and spread community; such difference made Tucson the perfect location since they were both close to greenspace yet varied in walkability. After using IBM-SPSS for data analysis and descriptive statistics for survey responses, the study concludes several factors that played significant roles in either one or both samples. For residents, the most prominent factor was “community” which indicated social interactions: residents are more likely to visit greenspaces when more social interactions are expected; in addition, they highly valued “land use” (varieties of services close to homes) and “surveillance” (degree of transparency residents can see the streets from their homes), which both associate with convenience and safety. For greenspace users, “proximity” was extremely important for visitation frequency — 6.298 times more likely to visit if they lived close by. “Traffic safety” increased visitation for both groups, which included safer sidewalks and bike lanes that are likely open and calm. Lastly, researchers concluded that walkability has a significant effect on more people walking and visiting greenspaces frequently, as walking/biking are much more popular travel methods than greenspaces. Limitations included that both sample populations included mostly high-income white individuals who were highly educated, in their 60s, and more females, all of which factors indicate a higher likelihood of being sampled for surveys, thus study results propose limitations for the underrepresentation of other ages, race, income, and gender groups.